Scientific Reasoning in Psychology

by Dr. Janet Waters

Empiricism in the Social Sciences

The Social Sciences includes the disciplines of Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Archaeology, Geography, Economics, Political Studies and History. All these disciplines study humans: in individuals, in groups, across cultures and eras, and in their political and economic structures. Though the disciplines differ in their focus of study, to one degree or another these disciplines are defined as social sciences because they use empirical methods to conduct this research.

If your impressions about Psychology and the other social sciences have come from media Psychology (e.g. Frazier or Dr. Phil) or Indiana Jones movies, you might get the impression that the theories and hypotheses in Psychology and the other social sciences are based on unfounded, and sometimes bizarre, intuitions and speculations. In fact theories, hypotheses and speculations in the social sciences must be based on and tested by sound scientific reasoning and methodology. Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology, Archaeology, Geography, History, etc. base their disciplines on empirical evidence. Empiricism is "the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation" (Weiten, 2001, p.22) rather than through popular belief, common sense, religious texts, intuition or personal experience, or even logic or expert authority. It is not that these non-empirical methods are always wrong; they may in fact lead us to correct answers. But science has added a valuable empirical element to our age-old human search for the truth. With science, we can verify our intuitions, beliefs, and logical deductions with objective and accurate scientific research using the methods of systematic observation and experimentation.

Psychology was considered to be a part of Philosophy until 1875, when the first psychologists began to apply the empirical methods of scientific reasoning and methodology to answer the questions about human behaviour that had long been asked by Philosophy. For example, before Psychology, philosophers and poets alike wondered about dreams, whether everybody dreamed or only a special few, whether dreams were valuable or nonsensical. This question could not be answered by personal experience or logic, since individuals' experiences with dreams vary greatly. Many people claimed they never dreamed. Some people believed that dreams were rare, or a sign of madness; others thought they were a divine gift. Some popular beliefs about dreams even today include the belief that dreams last only for a few minutes, that a sleepwalker should never be woken up, and that if a dreamer dies in a dream, they will actually die.

However, using systematic observation, psychologists were able to discover that, in fact, everyone dreams several times every night, dreams can last as long as an hour, and that none of the other beliefs noted above are true.

The Scientific Attitude

Science acquires its knowledge through systematic observations and experimentation. This objective research then leads to theoretical hypotheses, which then lead to further observations and experimentation. In making these observations, it is important to control for all other factors that may influence research findings and mislead us in drawing our conclusions. Therefore, scientists, and students in the social sciences, must have an attitude of open-minded skepticism and critical thinking. All assertions, speculations, and theories must be empirically tested, and the scientific evidence about them evaluated by objective and knowledgeable researchers, before being accepted as valid.

Scientific Methods

The scientific methods of systematic observation and experimentation have many different forms, especially when studying human behaviour and cognition. There are various forms of scientific methodology within Psychology, and there are also some differences in methodology between Psychology and the other social sciences, and between the social sciences and the natural sciences.

Since the social sciences are studying human beings, not rocks or plants, their scientific methods have to take into account different ethical and pragmatic concerns than those of biologists and geologists. When studying humans, researchers' findings can be affected by the human subjects' knowledge of your research, (for example, people will behave differently when they know a researcher is observing them). In Psychology, for example, researchers have often hidden or even deceived subjects about the topic of the study (until the research was over) to avoid influencing their behaviour. In fact, even the researchers' own knowledge about their research aims can itself affect the results, so researchers must control even that variable, in what is called a "double-blind study".

Although all the social sciences are studying humans, there are differences across the social science disciples in scientific methodology as well, because of differences in the topics, goals and difficulties of the discipline. Archaeologists, for example, may have only physical evidence and artifacts to use as their data in studying a site from thousands of years ago. A historian would need to use documents from the era they are studying, and try to validate the accuracy of that evidence when possible. Anthropologists must try to objectively observe, study, and understand cultures that may be very different from their own. In Psychology, research methods vary according to the topic of study, and range from controlled laboratory experiments, to systematic observation, to cognitive testing, surveys and case studies. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, which researchers and students must be aware of to evaluate the accuracy of the research findings.

Scientific Objectivity

In all the social sciences, researchers must be very careful not to allow their cultural and theoretical biases to shape their observations and affect their findings. Researchers, like the rest of us, are raised in the particular perspectives of their culture, class and gender, and shaped by their culture's socio-cultural, historical, philosophical, religious, gender and class experiences and beliefs. This can limit researchers', and students', awareness of other perspectives and beliefs, and bias their research methods and results. Also, researchers are trained within a certain set of theoretical perspectives (e.g. the Cognitive perspective in Psychology). Since the research is conducted to prove or disprove a particular theory, the researchers' theoretical perspective can also strongly bias their methods and findings.

Therefore keeping an attitude of scientific objectivity and skepticism is essential. In part, this is why a theory would never be accepted on the basis of one research study. We eventually build a solid foundation of many research studies on a topic, each of which is published only if it passes the critical eye of other knowledgeable researchers. From this foundation of research data, theories are then further refined or new theories proposed.

So as well as being skeptical of common sense and personal experience, a researcher must also be open-minded. Researchers must try hard to set aside their personal beliefs and attitudes, and the limitations of their culture and gender, as well as their theoretical perspective, to carry out objective, unbiased research.

Like researchers, students in the social sciences must also have an attitude of open-minded skepticism and critical thinking, and be able to objectively consider ideas and research findings that will challenge their personal beliefs and preconceptions. This can be difficult for "black-and-white" thinkers, who are looking for clear, simple, factual answers to memorize for the exam! Understanding any topic or question in Psychology (such as: "What causes violence in our schools?") will mean understanding: a) the main issues in the topic; b) the different theories or perspectives on this question; c) the dozens of factors that empirical research has found to be involved; and d) being able to evaluate this research for validity. To do this, you will have to set aside your biases and preconceptions, avoid the temptation of superficial answers, and consider what the theories and research says. And that can be particularly difficult to do, if the research conflicts with your beliefs.

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