Tips to Writing an APA Research Essay

by Janet Waters

Introduction

Each discipline in the social sciences, and each instructor, will have their own requirements for a research paper. Make sure you read the assignment instructions carefully. Ask questions if you are not sure you understand. Do consult the Writing Centre if you are having problems with your writing. Also, some instructors are willing to look at drafts of your paper to give you feedback on errors, if you show them your draft far enough in advance of the due date.

This handout has some general suggestions for writing research papers in psychology, including suggestions about the format, style, and organization of your paper, how to avoid plagiarism by correctly citing reference sources, and some common errors. Some of these suggestions apply to other disciplines in the social sciences. There are, however, differences in requirements for each discipline and across different instructors that you should be aware of (e.g. differences in reference citation style). Your instructor's handout is the final authority.

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Research Paper Format

Unless your instructor suggests otherwise, your papers should always be typed. Leave 1" margins on all sides. A title page, with the paper title, the course, a word count, your name and student number, is a nice gesture, although some instructors prefer you to omit a title page. Check with your instructor whether your papers should be in a folder or not, and whether they will accept e-mailed attachments or not. (Many instructors do not accept attachments because of virus problems).

If you are using a computer, adjust the "justification" to "left justify", rather than "full". Full justification evens the margin edge on both the left and right side; to do that it varies the spacing between the words in the line, and this makes the paper harder to read.

Double space your paper and use a standard font (Times New Roman or Ariel, 12pt size). (Some exceptions may be made by instructors in the interest of saving trees, but do check with your instructor before decreasing the line spacing). Indent the beginning of paragraphs 5 spaces. Always include a word-count. Number your pages; I prefer the page numbering to start with the first page of content, not the title page, although other instructors may not care. And please, spell-check your paper. Then carefully proof-read it as well, as many errors can not be detected by spell-checks.

Always keep your rough notes and early versions of the paper as you may be asked to show them.

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Organization

Always begin writing a research paper by first preparing an outline; it will help you to organize your argument or discussion into a coherent order. The Introduction to your paper should be brief and to the point, with no unnecessary words or filling. Omit vague generalities such as "Researchers have long debated the nature/nurture issue...". A history of your topic is not usually necessary. Simply introduce your topic or argument briefly, and outline where you are going with it. Some relevant and necessary background may be given in the Introduction if you don't want to discuss it in the body of the paper, but every sentence in your introduction should convey information necessary for the development of your paper.

Discuss aspects of your topic in a logical, well-organized way. In psychology papers, use subtitles to separate the sections. For example, in a paper on the Nature/Nurture Controversy in Intelligence, subtopics could include:

Introduction
Genetic Factors in Intelligence
Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Conclusions
References

This order outlines the issue, discusses both sides of it, and concludes with your own analysis of the argument on both sides. If your topic was Environmental Influences on Intelligence, you would not need to include a separate subsection reviewing the research on heredity, but you should mention the opposing view in such a debated topic, and include research evidence for and against it. A critical evaluation of the ideas, theories or research you are discussing is essential in psychology. Before you can conclusively assert a point or idea, you should discuss possible arguments against it, and evaluate these arguments.

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Style

Style is all part of the package, and a writing style that is readable and appropriate for the assignment helps you present your content coherently and clearly. Just as you would wear different clothes to school than you would to a party, you must also change your writing style for different contexts and situations. You would write differently for an academic research paper than you would for a magazine article, or in your journal. And you would write a paper for an english course differently than a paper for psychology.

For a psychology research essay, a formal, objective style is required. Remember, psychology is a scientific discipline; be objective in your language, and focus on clearly and accurately reporting the theory and research in your topic. Avoid unfounded opinion and personal experience (except for an occasional example that might illustrate a theory, finding or argument). Also avoid overly descriptive language and narrative.You don't need to entertain, just to inform, critically analyze, and discuss.

Do not use personal references; avoid using "I", "we", or "you". Use a formal, academic style of discourse, avoiding slang and informal language, and use the correct terms from your discipline to identify and explain concepts. (A glossary of terms in psychology, with their definitions, can be found at the end of your Introductory Psychology textbook).

Be objective and well-reasoned. Don't "soap-box" in a research paper in psychology, even if it is a subject about which you have very strong feelings. Argue logically, not emotionally or anecdotally, using research evidence, not opinion, to support your view. However, in some disciplines instructors may wish you to express your opinion; as always, follow the instructor's requirements. Even in these assignments, your opinion is more persuasive if you support it with logical argument and evidence.

Avoid narratives and overly descriptive or metaphorical language. It may be entertaining, but it's not necessary or appropriate. You may think your paper sounds dry, but it will be more concise and easier to read.

And avoid inserting reams of irrelevant material to pad the paper. It will be noticed and even if it expands your paper to the required number of pages, the lack of content will be penalized.

In psychology essays, there is no need to "qualify" your sources. Since all your sources are (or should be) psychologists, there is no need to mention their titles or positions. By convention, only their last names are needed (e.g. "Freud suggested....") unless you need to differentiate between two sources with the same last name (e.g. "Anna Freud formulated....").

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Plagiarism

Plagiarism is defined as the use of another person's ideas, concepts or words as your own. This is cheating, and is a serious academic offence. It will result in a failure of the paper, and likely of the course as well. Although suspected plagiarism could be a result of confusion about referencing requirements, rather than a deliberate attempt to cheat, the consequences are the same.

To avoid plagiarism, note that research papers in each course must be original, that is, not used in another course. (Some instructors may give permission to use a similar topic as a paper for another course, but even if the topic is similar, you must write a new paper for each course, according to the course requirements). Needless to say, you must write your own paper, it must not be written by someone else, bought on the internet, or borrowed from a friend. Also note that substantial help from a friend in writing your paper can also be plagiarism, if the friend, tutor or editor rewrites the paper for you. If someone is helping you with your english grammar and expression, be careful that their help does not extend to writing the sentences for you (or dictating them, either). Editing help should only help you identify a common grammar problem, or to note where you need to rewrite a confusing or ungrammatical sentence or paragraph. You should always do the actual writing yourself.

A major source of plagiarism problems comes from missing reference citations. Research papers in the social sciences, like other departments, must include accurate citations of every paraphrased or quoted concept, idea, or words. Some students incorrectly believe a citation is only needed for a quote, and that it isn't necessary to cite the reference for an idea, or for a paraphrased passage, or for the course text book, or for what they think of as "common knowledge". In fact, all this information must be referenced.

For psychology research essays, you should generally paraphrase rather than use quotes, unless it is necessary to express the exact words of a source. Paraphrase ideas you read in your source texts, that is, rephrase the idea into your own words. This implies more than a change of one or two words in the sentence. When you quote the exact words of your source, you must use quotation marks (or for long quotes, a block indent), and add the page number to the citation. For both paraphrased material and for quotes, you must cite the source for all ideas and concepts that are not completely your own. Cite your sources throughout the body of the paper, and give the full reference in the References section at the end of the paper. If you do not cite these ideas, or if you fail to use quotation marks or block indents when you do include a direct quote, you are in effect claiming credit for ideas and words that are not your own. Remember, this is plagiarizing and will result in a failed paper.

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Citing Your Sources

The purpose of a citation is to tell your reader the author of the idea, concept or quote in your paper, and when and where this information was published. Then your reader could trace the information themselves and evaluate its validity. The various disciplines in the social sciences have different referencing style requirements. Papers in Psychology, for example, must have correct references citations written in APA style. (See below). However, many of the other disciplines in the social sciences use MLA style to cite references (see the Writing Centre handbook on MLA referencing style). Again, follow your instructor's handout or instructions.

In all of these referencing styles, make sure you are completely correct in your reference citations, including correct punctuation and capital letters. The instructors in Psychology will deduct points for errors in APA referencing.

APA style referencing:

To find information on APA style, see the Capilano Guide to Writing Assignments or the Quick Guide to APA Style

In APA (American Psychological Association) style, cite paraphrased material in the body of the paper with: (author's last name, date of publication). In psychology, it is the date of the publication that is of concern to us, as current research may radically challenge older ideas. To cite quotes, see below. In APA style, don't use footnotes, or bibliographies. Also, don't include first names, initials, or titles in the reference citation. For example:

Freud, Jung, Cartwright, and Faraday, among many others, have proposed very different theories about the meaning of dreams (Weiten & McCann, 2010). While Freud believed that all dreams were wish-fulfilments (as cited in Weiten & McCann, 2010), Faraday (1972) suggested that dreams can tell us about neglected aspects of our psyche.

Yes, do cite your references for every assertion, idea, etc. However, if every sentence in a paragraph paraphrases information from the same source, it isn't usually necessary to reference each sentence with the same citation. In that case, a citation at the beginning of the paragraph, and at the end of the paragraph, would usually be enough. Do, however, include a citation when you change a source, even if that occurs in the same or next sentence, as in my example above.

Referencing secondary sources:

Students are often confused about how to cite a secondary source (that is, when your source cites a previous source), e.g. your source, Weiten & McCann, cited Freud. Give the reference for only the source you actually read. Although you will usually include the name of the original author within your sentence, do not cite the date of the original author's publication, or page number. If you cite the original author, you are in effect claiming you read the original author, and that is not true. For example, if you found Freud's theories about dreams in your text by Weiten, you would reference Weiten, not Freud, as follows:

In Freud's (as cited in Weiten & McCann, 2010) view, all dreams were wish-fulfilments.

When I read this sentence, I know that the concept was Freud's, but that you read about Freud's idea in the Weiten text. If you copy Weiten's own citation of Freud himself, (e.g.: (Freud, 1900)) you would be claiming that you yourself looked up Freud's original work, presumably reading it in the original German 1900 edition.

Using quotes:

In psychology papers, direct quotes are discouraged unless necessary and brief. If you must occasionally quote directly from your sources, all direct quotes (under 40 words) must be in quotation marks and referenced with author, date, and page number. If the quote is over 40 words, quotation marks are not used. Instead, the entire passage is indented 5 spaces, and referenced with author, date and page number on the right margin. For example:

An individual might have a dream that contains mythic content, yet be unaware of the myth itself. May (1991) defined myths as "archetypal patterns in human consciousness" (p.37). These patterns are universal; according to May (1991, p.20),

The need for myths, indeed the cry for myths, will be present wherever there are persons who call themselves human.... (cont)

The References page:

As noted above, the full reference is given at the end of the paper, in the References section. All references cited in the paper (and only those references cited) are listed in alphabetical order on the References page. Note that the date is after the author's name (not at the end of the reference as in MLA style). Only the first word in the book/article title or subtitle (or a proper name) is in capitals, and that initials are used for first names.

An example of a book and journal article citation follows: (Note: references should be in a hanging indent which will not appear on this Web page).

References
May, R. (1991). The cry for myth. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
Weinberg, R. A. (1989). Intelligence and IQ: Landmark issues and great debates. American Psychologist, 44, 98-104.

The Library handout on APA style has several examples of full citations for different types of sources, including edited books and personal communications. Also, your Psychology textbook has been written and referenced in correct APA style. Consult the References section for examples of different references.

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Common Errors

Some errors I find repeatedly include:

Incorrect or missing references, or using direct quotes of all or part of a sentence without quotation marks and page numbers. As noted above, this is plagiarizing.

Writing problems: Including bad grammar, spelling, and sentence structure. Pick up a guide to writing university level essays, like the Capilano Guide to Writing Assignments or Barnet and Stubb's Practical Guide to Writing. You can find writing style guides on the internet. They will tell you how to write papers and review some common grammatical errors, such as punctuation misuse, or the use of "that" for "who", or "it's" (it is) for the possessive "its". I also find run-on paragraphs are common. A rule of thumb is to start a new paragraph when you are starting to discuss the next idea or concept.

Language Use: Use of slang, informal or sexist language. The level of discourse we are expecting is one that is appropriate to a university academic paper. Many of the words we use in everyday language are slang terms; replace these with a more formal term in your paper (e.g. use "adolescent" rather then "teen"). Also, as noted above, try to use the correct and appropriate terms from within your discipline. Finally, avoid sexist terms like "man" for human.

Unfounded conclusions: Expressing ideas and theories, or speculations, as fact. If a point is validly disputed, or is a speculation or theory of your own you can't be certain is correct, it should be expressed as such. Example: "The recent murder-suicide of a young Vancouver family may have been predisposed by the father's abused childhood," rather than "The recent ... was caused by abuse in childhood".

Poor sources: Using poor quality source material, including the use of references that are too old, or are at too elementary a level. Psychology is changing constantly and almost any topic that you choose, apart from historical theories, must be reviewed from current research (since 1990, in most cases). Also, in psychology, don't use references that are too elementary or non-professional (outside the discipline of psychology), including articles in newspapers or magazines and self-help books which are written by non-psychologists, or Wikipedia. (For Psyc 100, I do allow Scientific American Mind and Discover. However, some psychology instructors may not allow these magazines, while other instructors may expect you to read newspapers, etc, for your assignments. As always, check with your instructor).

Personal opinion: "Soapboxing"; that is, expressing a passionately held opinion, usually in emotional language, and without logical foundation or support from research and theory. A research essay would not usually include your personal opinion. Your aim in this paper is to critically discuss a topic in psychology, not to arouse sympathy, anger, indignation or even laughter in the reader.

Unnecessary comment: Do make every word count, and avoid "motherhood" comments in your introduction or conclusions that state the obvious, such as: "Therefore, we should all work for world peace, a clean environment, and the betterment of society".

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